But to what extent were these conquered populations affected by Assyrian culture, and was it enough to change the way they perceived themselves?  Mortuary material provides a unique avenue to explore identity at this level. Practices surrounding death are one of the most conservative forms of culture; they are deeply rooted in tradition, personal belief systems, and group identity. Burial practices (including related experiences such as funerary ritual and practices like the kispu ritual, which involved feeding and caring for the deceased regularly after they had passed), provide an opportunity to create and reinforce identity and memories among the living community.  The negotiation between the identities maintained by groups drawn into an empire and the introduction of ideas and practices of the imperial conquerors creates a complex setting of tensions between different actors. Furthermore, studying non-royal burials like the ones included in this study allows us to understand the impact of Assyrian control throughout society, not just among its most elite actors.

To explore how Assyrian traditions may have impacted those within the empire, we can first take a look at the mortuary practices of Aššur, Assyria’s first capital and continuing cultural center, and then compare them to those at Tell Billa (ancient Šibaniba), a provincial center directly adjacent to the imperial core, but subject to varying degrees of Assyrian control.

Beyond these general practices, several developments occur between the Middle and Neo-Assyrian periods. Most notably, the use of sarcophagi as burial containers skyrockets, replacing sherd graves as the most popular grave type. Additionally, other non-Assyrian grave types are beginning to be utilized, most notably mudbrick-encased burials and, for the first time in the Assyrian heartland, cremations.  Also interesting is a notable decrease in the wealth of objects with which the residents of Aššur were buried. Whether this indicates changing traditions regarding grave goods or a decrease in resources available to these families is debatable, but it is starkly clear that in the Middle Assyrian period, there was a wider variety, both of burial assemblage variety and of burial assemblage wealth, among the deceased than in later times.

These identified characteristics from Aššur show up in varying levels during the same periods at Šibaniba (modern Tell Billa), alongside a number of local traditions.  Šibaniba was located close to the core of the empire and was absorbed into it at the beginning of Assyrian expansion in the 14th century BCE.  Assyrian control over Šibaniba likely was lost during the contraction of the empire at the end of the Middle Assyrian period.  The mortuary remains of 80 graves in the southwest town at Šibaniba (excavated by a joint Penn-ASOR project in the early 20th century) collectively give an impression of varied local practices, present in the Middle Assyrian period with some continuing through the Neo-Assyrian period.  However, there is also an introduction of new, more Assyrian, mortuary practices and an abandonment of many local practices during the growth of the empire.

The identity of the ruling actors can be taken up by the ruled for various reasons, each with their unique form of consequent practice.  “Becoming” Assyrian shows an accordance with Assyrian beliefs — believing oneself to be a part of the empire, not just a resident of a province — while “practicing” denotes a purposeful outer adherence to the cultural norms of the ruling class, while internally “othering” them.  Mortuary culture is a fundamentally private practice, betraying the unique ways in which Assyrian identity became integrated into the lives of Šibaniba’s residents.  The Assyrianization of these deeply personal and emotional rituals suggests that this adoption of the identity was not just a hollow practice.  Instead, it seems that the residents of Šibaniba made, in some capacity, a choice — without enforced compulsion —to adopt Assyrian traditions.

When assessed with a long-term perspective, overarching trends in mortuary culture serve as a kind of “litmus test” indicator of social change.  Here we have been able to see how shifting burial practices in the Assyrian capital and in a provincial center indicate differences in non-elite perception and adoption of Assyrian cultural practices.  At an individual level, this suggests an exposure to imperial mortuary practices and a normalization of adopting Assyrian practices.  More broadly, it suggests that non-elite Assyrian subjects came to accept and replicate aspects of imperial society which, to our knowledge, were not forced through imperial channels.  Because funerary culture is one of the most conservative forms of practice, the implications of its change under Assyrian imperialism at a non-elite, provincial level point to the depth of cultural influence that Assyria had over its subjects which has been difficult to identify by other means.

I put forward the conclusion that the residents of Šibaniba began to see themselves as fundamentally/culturally “Assyrian” as the hegemony of the Assyrian Empire grew.  No evidence exists for a purposeful imposition of mortuary traditions by Assyrian rulers.  Rather, the mortuary practices of the Assyrians seemed very much like a “take it or leave it” aspect of their lives.  When many of those living in the Empire decided to “take it,” it was an unimposed choice — reflecting not the demands of a dominant imperial power, but rather the purposeful adoption of new traditions into personal and community-driven narratives.

Petra M. Creamer is Assistant Professor of Ancient Near Eastern Studies at Emory University. She directs the Rural Landscapes of Iron Age Imperial Mesopotamia project in Iraqi Kurdistan.

Further Reading and Sources:

Hauser, S. 2012. Status, Tod und Ritual: Stadt- und Sozialstruktur Assurs in neuassyrischer Zeit.  Harrassowitz.

Miglus, P. 1996. Das Wohngebiet von Aššur.  Stratigraphie und Architektur. Gebr. Mann Verlag.

Miglus, P.A. 1999. Stadtische Wohnarchitektur in Babylonien und Assyrien. (BaF 22) Mainz: Ph. Von Zabern.

Miglus, P., K. Rader, & F.M. Stępniowski. 2016. Ausgrabungen in Assur: Wohnquartiere in der Weststadt. Harrassowitz.

Pedde, F. 2015. Gräber und Grüfte in Aššur II: Die mittelassyrische Zeit. Harrassowitz.

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